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An average score is step 1.478 regarding plosive updates, step one.45 from the fricative standing, step 1.707 in the nose position, and you will step one.942 on h2o reputation. A reduced area for the Desk step 3 summarises the outcomes away from modeling out of Lay step 3. The fresh baseline is the fresh fricative status, and now we opposed brand new plosive vs. fricative requirements, the fresh new nose compared to. fricative requirements, plus the drinking water against. fricative requirements. Earliest, the essential difference between the fresh plosive and you will fricative criteria wasn’t legitimate, since 95% CI from the coefficient imagine integrated no [?0.06, 0.09]. 2nd, the newest nose versus. fricative and you will liquids versus. fricative evaluations showed that both of the newest coefficient rates was basically confident (? = 0.16) (nasal) and you will (? = 0.3) (liquid) and you will both of the new 95% CIs don’t become no ([0.09, 0.24] (nasal) and you can [0.23, 0.38] (liquid)), and so suggesting that nonce terms and conditions having nasals and liquid was basically judged becoming far more kawaii brands as opposed to those that have fricatives.

Discussion

The modern data showed that (1) labial consonants will become for the kawaii than just coronal and you may dorsal consonants, (2) high-regularity consonants are more inclined to be on the kawaii than just low-frequency consonants, and you may (3) h2o /?/ and you can nose /n/ will getting associated with the kawaii than just fricative /z/ (and you will plosive /d/). Such performance suggest that the area-of-articulation ability in the kawaii are [labial], as well as the regularity feature for the kawaii was [high-frequency]. The way-of-articulation function need further discussion. As consonant appearing the highest average score try drinking water /?/, we could presume that the styles-of-articulation function regarding the kawaii was [liquid]. But not, because Bayesian investigation exhibited, nose /n/ is far more apt to be from the kawaii than fricative /z/. Thus, we are able to finish you to h2o and you may nasals, all of which happen to be [sonorant], was regarding the kawaii.

General dialogue

This study showed that the features of consonants associated with kawaii in Japanese are [labial], [high frequency], and [sonorant]. The motivations for the three features are briefly discussed below. The feature [labial] may be linked to a pouting gesture, that is, a gesture made using both lips can induce Japanese people to feel kawaii (Kumagai, 2020). The feature [labial] may also be linked to the image of babies, in that bilabial consonants are more frequent in the earlier phases of language acquisition (Kumagai and Kawahara, 2020). Thus, it can be said that consonants with feature [labial] can evoke the image of babies, at least in Japanese. The feature [high frequency] may stem from smallness, as the frequency code hypothesis states that high-frequency sounds are associated with smallness (Ohala, 1984, 1994). The feature [sonorant] may be connected to a number of observations on sound symbolic effects in names and shapes. Sonorants are better suited for female names or bulleted shapes (Shinohara and Kawahara, 2013; Asano et al., 2015). To summarise, the factors associated with kawaii may include pouting gesture, babyishness, smallness, femininity, and roundness. It is interesting that some of these factors overlap with the factors noted by Kinsella (1995) for cute characters. She noted that ‘The essential anatomy of a cute cartoon character consists in its being small, soft, infantile, mammalian, round, without bodily appendages (e.g., arms), without bodily orifices (e.g., mouths), non-sexual, mute, insecure, helpless or bewildered’. (p. 226; emphasis mine). Taking the fact into consideration that Kinsella (1995) was published more than 25 years ago, it is inferred that something that evokes kawaii in the minds of Japanese speakers has not changed for at least 25 years.

As noted in the introduction section, it is well known that sound symbolism plays an important role in ; Klink and Wu, 2014). The exploration of what consonants are better suited for kawaii names is an interesting topic. Based on the above discussion, it is inferred that the consonants that induce the feeling of kawaii among Japanese people include /p/, /?/, and /m/, as the first consonant /p/ is specified with [labial] and [high frequency], the second consonant /?/ with [sonorant], and the third consonant /m/ with [labial] and [sonorant]. Based on his kawaii judgment experiment with Japanese speakers, Kumagai (2019) discusses whether /m/, in addition to /p/, is another consonant expressive of kawaii in Japanese, since his study results demonstrated that fewest differences existed regarding average scores between nonce words with /p/ and those with /m/. In Japanese words or character names that seem to be associated with kawaii, we find bra inlГ¤gg att lГ¤sa examples that contain /p/, /?/, or /m/. For example, a mimetic word, or onomatopoeia, purupuru, is used to express something soft or something that trembles like jelly. We also find a cute character name pomupomu purin ‘Pom Pom Purin’, created by Sanrio. Moreover, Kawahara (2019) reported that bilabial consonants and /?/ are often used in girls’ names in a popular Japanese anime PreCure, broadcast since 2004. It is expected that these consonants will prove applicable in naming anime characters or products that are characterised by kawaii.